2007年5月22日星期二

未來數學家的挑戰【六、NP-hardness 與圍棋】

六、NP-hardness 與圍棋

不是所有的難題都可歸結為 NP 問題,像下得一手絕對好的圍棋現在目前的推測是比所有 NP 問題還要難的計算問題,即 NP-hard 問題,NP-hard 問題的定義如下:



定義: 若 x 為一 NP-hard 問題,則若 NP $\neq P$,則 $x\not\in P$

也就是說,即使 P=NP,x 還不一定屬於 P,但 $P\neq$NP, 則 x 絕不比 NP 的問題容易。在第三節中的問題1、3不一定是 NP 問題,但若能以 O(nk) 的計算量解決它們,則比較容易的問題2與4也可以 O(nk) 解決, 故若問題1、3$\in P$ 則問題2、4$\in P$,又因2、4是 NP-complete,即推出 NP=P。 這與 NP-hard 之定義相合,故問題1、3均為 NP-hard 問題。 同理問題5也屬於 NP-hard,不過這些 NP-hard 似乎比 NP 難不了多少,但下棋問題可能比 NP 問題要難得多,圍棋問題可以作如下觀。


問題11.(圍棋問題)
以平常的圍棋規則在一個 n x n 的棋盤上下,給定一個殘局(下了二個子就可以算殘局),首先,是否可以確定黑子在最好的下法之下,一定會贏?

這個問題不能用一般的方法證明它是不是為 NP。 因為目前沒有人能猜一個必勝的下法且在 O(np) 時內證明它是對的,因為它與對方如何應付有關,而敵方的應付又與他對你以後的下法的推測有關,如此往下走,首先發生困難的是記憶上亮了紅燈,即所需要的記憶可能呈方次以上的進展。

因每一個記憶至少要用(來計算)一次,否則這個記憶就不如不要,因此一個問題的記憶若呈指數上升,則其計算量亦非呈指數似的上升不可,但若某問題只需要方次上升的記憶,即不能保證它只需要方次上升的計算量。

因此計算機學家定義三個新的集合:


PSPACE={xx 只需要方次上升的記憶 }
註:x 均指問題。


PSPACE-complete:

$x\in$ PSPACE,

$x\in$ PSPACE-complete,

$x\in P$,

P= PSPACE。


PSPACE-hard:

$x\in$ PSPACE-hard,

$x\in P$,

P= PSPACE。

注意在上式中 PSPACE-complete $\subset$ PSPACE,即 PSPACE-complete 是 PSPACE 中的難題,但 PSPACE-hard 不一定屬於 PSPACE。 Stockmeyer and Meyer 在1937年證明了一個與古克相似的定理。

若令 $\exists x$ 表示存在一個 x$\forall x$ 表對所有的 xQ$\exists$$\forall$ 中的一個,x 為布氏變數0與1,則我們稱 f(Q1 x1,Q2 x2,…,Qn xn) 為一量化布氏公式。若 f 有可能為1,則 f 稱之為可滿足,例如把第四節中之(1)式改寫成

\begin{displaymath} f(\forall u_1,\exists u_2,\forall u_3)\\ =((\forall u_1)\cd... ...ts u_2)\cdot \\ (\exists u_2)+\forall u_3)\cdot(\forall u_3)) \end{displaymath}

則上式不可能滿足,因對 $\forall u_3$u3 為 0 或 1)而言,f 不全是1。

Stockmeyer 與 Meyer 之定理為:


定理:
檢定一個量化布氏公式為可滿足是一個 PSPACE-complete 問題。

當我們下棋面對著一盤殘局沉思的時候,我們的要求是

對我是否存在一著必勝棋可以對付
敵人任何一著應付棋
此後我是否存在一著必勝棋可以對付
敵人任何一著應付棋
……
我是否存在一著必勝棋可以對付
敵人任何一著棋
我贏了

因此這完全是 $\exists$,$\forall$,$\exists$,$\forall$,… 之交替作用與Stockmeyer 與 Meyer 定理之關係至為密切, Robertson 與 Munro 在1918年證得圍棋是一種 PSPACE-hard 的問題, 目前有人計算到圍棋 8 必勝法之記憶計算量在 10600 以上,不論人腦或電腦的記憶絕少不了一個原子, 而現今所知的宇宙原子數約只有 1075。棋之道,大矣哉!要做一個下圍棋必勝的機器人是談何容易!

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